By This, Conquer

28 October 312 A.D. is one of the most important dates in history. It was on this day that Constantine defeated his opponent Maxentius to become sole emperor of the Western Empire. Accounts differ in detail, but it seems safe to say that sometime around noon, Constantine had a vision of the chi-rho, which was quite possibly a symbol already in use by the Christian community, superimposed upon the words “in this you shall conquer” in the sky. He ordered his soldiers to paint the symbol on their shields before going into battle.

That Maxentius made the foolhardy decision to meet Constantine in battle with his back to the river, and that Constantine triumphed against a substantially larger army led many to the conclusion that his victory was a sign of divine favour.

However, let us back up a bit and fill in some holes. Today, we shall consider three things: How did Constantine come to power? Was Constantine a believer? What were the effects of Constantine’s reign vis a vis the Church?

1. The Road to Power

   1. As Tim mentioned last week, one of means by which Diocletian attempted to put an end to the threat of civil war and to ensure a better defense against barbarian incursion was the apportionment of the Empire into four territories, each governed by a different emperor. Diocletian ruled the East, and Maximian the West. They took the title “augustus”. The title of “caesar” was conferred upon two inferiors who would share their rule, with the intention that as an augustus needed to be replaced, his caesar would succeed him, and the remaining three emperors would choose a new caesar. The success of the arrangement was short-lived.

   2. In 305, Galerius, the Eastern Caesar, forced both Diocletian and Maximian to abdicate. He and Constantius Chlorus, the Western Caesar, became the augusti, and he secured the appointment of two new caesare, both loyal to Galerius and his ambitions.

   3. Constantius was forced to send his son, Constantine, to be a hostage in Galerius’s court, but Constantine soon escaped to join his father with the Western army.

   4. In the meantime, the son of Maximian, Maxentius, had gathered an army and seized Rome. Galerius responded with a counterinvasion, but his troops began deserting and declaring themselves for Maxentius. Galerius retreated to the Eastern empire and appointed a new Caesar, Licinius.

   5. During this time, Constantine busied himself preparing his troops and strengthening his position in Gaul and Britain. Following the death of Galerius, the empire was divided amongst Licinius, Maximinus Daia (one of Galerius’s two appointees following his power grab), Constantine, and Maxentius. Of these, the first three considered each other legitimate and Maxentius a usurper.

   6. Unexpectedly, Constantine moved against Maxentius. He moved rapidly through Maxentius’s territory and soon had his forces practically at the gates of Rome. Following the advice of his augurs, Maxentius chose to give battle rather than sit out a siege. As we have already described, this led to his death and the establishment of Constantine as the sole emperor in the West.

   7. Following this victory, Constantine met with Licinius in Milan and made a peace agreement with him. This was a politically astute move as it gave him time to consolidate his hold on the west before going on to subdue the rest of the empire rather than risking insurrections, overextended supply lines, and the other problems that would almost certainly have resulted from an immediate move against his remaining rivals.

   8. The details of those conquests are not important for our purposes, but by 324 Constantine had reunited the empire under a single ruler – himself.

2. The Impact of Constantine
   Constantine had an enduring impact both politically and ecclesiastically.

   1. The most significant political change was the construction of a new capitol. The small eastern city of Byzantium was rechristened Constantinople, and numerous ambitious building projects begun. To populate the city, a variety of incentives were offered, including freedom from taxation or military service. The city would endure as the political capital of the empire and one of the most important ecclesiastical sees until it fell to the Turks 800 years later.

   2. At his meeting with Licinius in Milan, 313 A.D., the two issued a document known as the Edict of Milan. It recognised Christianity as a legitimate religion and forbade the persecution of Christians. This is generally given as the date at which persecution ended, although an earlier edict by Galerius had effectively done so throughout most of the empire. Additionally, Maximinus Daia, was still continuing persecution in the territories under his control.
      
      You may hear it asserted that Constantine made Christianity the established religion of the empire. This is a gross exaggeration. Although he did remove impoverish the pagan temples and give numerous benefits to the Church, pagan worship, especially the worship of the Unconquered Sun was tolerated for decades after the time of Constantine.

   3. Constantine did however have tremendous influence on the Church. The toleration extended to the Church made it possible for Church to construct many places specifically for worship rather than meeting in houses which had been the dominant practice. Additionally, it became possible for the Church to begin to accumulate material wealth, something which would become a source of trouble. The Church was allowed to use the imperial post, which facilitated communication amongst the bishops.

   4. Constantine hoped to use the Church as a unifying influence. For this reason, he desired the Church to speak with one voice. This is one of the reasons for which he called (and presided over) the Council of Nicaea (which we shall discuss next month).

   5. Church government became patterned more after the imperial government. Authority began to concentrate in the Metropolitan bishops.

   6. There was also an impact on worship: see p. 125

3. Was Constantine a Believer?
   One of the great conundrums of history was whether Constantine’s profession of faith was sincere. Gonzalez’s treatment of this issue is one of the best things about his book. If you read nothing else, read pages 120-128. The debate has centered too much around modern evangelical notions of what it means to be a Christian, and has thus been cast in terms foreign to the early Church.

   1. The argument that the incident at the Milvian bridge was a matter of political expediency is shallow. The old imperial religion was deeply entrenched in Rome. A display of affiliation with the Christian God was unlikely to win any support for him there.

   2. Throughout most of his life, Constantine continued to combine worship of the One True God with worship of the Unconquered Sun. When marking the location of the new walls of Constantinople he was accompanied by priests of both religions. Many of Constantine’s recorded statements that pertain to religion are vague enough to be applied to either. Indeed, it isn’t clear to what degree Constantine regarded them as distinct.

   3. Read the appropriate bits from page 121.

Discussion Questions

1. Do you think Constantine was a believer? Does it matter?

2. Did Constantine act rightly toward the Church?

3. Did the Church act rightly toward Constantine?